Akhtar, B. (2024, July 14). Opinion: The best and brightest don’t want to stay in Canada. I should know: I’m one of the few in my engineering class who did. Toronto Star. https://www.thestar.com/opinion/contributors/the-best-and-brightest-don-t-want-to-stay-in-canada-i-should-know-i/article_293fc844-3d3e-11ef-8162-5358e7d17a26.html

Brouillette, D., Lachaine, J., & Vincent, B. (2018). Wages: Measurement and key drivers.
This analytical note introduces the wage-common, a composite measure that captures underlying wage trends in Canada by aggregating multiple wage data sources to reduce volatility and improve reliability. It highlights the wage-common’s correlation with labor market fundamentals, such as productivity and labor slack, making it a useful tool for understanding wage dynamics. For our purposes, the wage-common provides a stable and comprehensive indicator of wage growth, making it a suitable metric for adjusting 2022 market income figures to reflect 2024 levels. Its focus on labor-related earnings aligns closely with market income trends, ensuring a more accurate adjustment than using broader income measures.

Canada Drives. (2020). What’s the average car insurance cost for Canadians by province? Canadadrives.ca. https://www.canadadrives.ca/blog/news/car-insurance-across-canada-whats-the-difference#Ontario

Canada Revenue Agency. (2023, November 30). Charge and collect the tax – Which rate to charge. Canada.ca; Government of Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/revenue-agency/services/tax/businesses/topics/gst-hst-businesses/charge-collect-which-rate.html

Canadian Institute for Health Information. (2019, December 12). Who is paying for these services? Www.cihi.ca. https://www.cihi.ca/en/who-is-paying-for-these-services

Canadian Institute for Health Information. (2023a). Health Expenditure Data in Brief. https://www.cihi.ca/sites/default/files/document/health-expenditure-data-in-brief-2023-en.pdf
The report reveals that out-of-pocket healthcare spending per capita in Canada was 1,168 CAD in 2021, covering costs like prescriptions, dental, and vision care. Private insurance expenditures were 938.8 CAD per capita the same year. The private sector accounts for 29% of total healthcare spending, while the public sector covers the remaining 71%.

Canadian Institute for Health Information. (2023b, November 2). National health expenditure trends | CIHI. Www.cihi.ca. https://www.cihi.ca/en/national-health-expenditure-trends#Key-Findings

Carlson, B. (2023, September 8). The U.S. housing market vs. the Canadian housing market. A Wealth of Common Sense. https://awealthofcommonsense.com/2023/09/the-u-s-housing-market-vs-the-canadian-housing-market/

Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. (2024, October 30). How Many Weeks of Unemployment Compensation Are Available? https://www.cbpp.org/research/economy/how-many-weeks-of-unemployment-compensation-are-available

City of Vancouver. (2012). Transportation 2040 plan as adopted by Vancouver City Council on October 31, 2012. In City of Vancouver. https://vancouver.ca/files/cov/Transportation_2040_Plan_as_adopted_by_Council.pdf
Transportation 2040 is the City of Vancouver’s long-term strategic vision for the city that is focused on building “a city with a smart and efficient transportation system that supports a thriving economy while increasing affordability; healthy citizens who are mobile in a safe, accessible, and vibrant city; and an enhanced natural environment that ensures a healthy future for people and the planet.”

Cohen, R., Briones, E., & Martinez, M. (2024). Health Insurance Coverage: Early Release of Estimates From the National Health Interview Survey, 2023. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhis/earlyrelease/insur202406.pdf

Dawson, T. (2022, December 14). Canada’s “brain drain” to U.S. is slowing down, study suggests. National Post. https://nationalpost.com/news/canadas-brain-drain-to-u-s-slowing
In 2021, 11,955 Americans emigrated to Canada, while 15,294 left Canada for the U.S., for a record low net loss of 3,339.

Economic Policy Institute. (2020, October). Child care costs in the United States. Economic Policy Institute. https://www.epi.org/child-care-costs-in-the-united-states/

Engel, K., & Posey, K. (2024). Household income in states and metropolitan areas: 2023. https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/2024/demo/acsbr-023.pdf

Ercolao, M. (2024, February 5). Canadian labour market outlook: Denting the armour. Economics.td.com; TD Bank. https://economics.td.com/ca-labour-market-outlook
This report on Canada’s labor market outlook highlights a cooling job market, with rising unemployment driven more by labor supply growth than employment contractions. Private-sector hiring is slowing, and public-sector job markets remain tight. Wage growth is expected to moderate, but union wages may delay this adjustment. Alberta and the Atlantic provinces are projected to perform better due to sustained employment growth, while Ontario, Quebec, and B.C. are likely to experience slower hiring. Participation rates are expected to decline due to aging demographics and other structural factors.

Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2019). Table 8 Offenses known to law enforcement by state by city. 2019 Crime in the United States. https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2019/crime-in-the-u.s.-2019/tables/table-8/table-8.xls/view

Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2023, October 16). Crime Data Explorer. https://cde.ucr.cjis.gov/LATEST/webapp/#/pages/home

Focareta, D. (2024, April 3). How many miles does the average person drive a year? 2024. Consumer Affairs; Journal of Consumer Research. https://www.consumeraffairs.com/automotive/how-many-miles-does-the-average-person-drive-a-year.html

Gramlich, J. (2023, April 26). What the data says about gun deaths in the U.S. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/04/26/what-the-data-says-about-gun-deaths-in-the-u-s/

Green, K. (2024, July 8). Canada’s marginal tax rates are much higher than America’s, with greater increases across income levels. Thehub.ca; The Hub. https://thehub.ca/2024/07/08/canadas-marginal-tax-rates-are-much-higher-than-u-s-with-greater-increases-across-income-levels/
This article examines how Canada’s marginal tax rates are significantly higher than those in the United States, particularly for higher income brackets. It provides detailed comparisons of marginal tax rates across various income levels in both countries, highlighting that Canadians face steeper increases in tax rates as income rises. The piece also discusses how these higher tax rates could influence high earners to consider relocating to the U.S., where the tax environment is relatively less burdensome.

Gunja, M. Z., Gumas, E. D., & Williams II, R. D. (2023). U.S. health care from a global perspective, 2022: Accelerating spending, worsening outcomes. The Commonwealth Fund. https://www.commonwealthfund.org/publications/issue-briefs/2023/jan/us-health-care-global-perspective-2022

Guzman, G., & Kollar, M. (2023). Income in the United States: 2022. https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2023/demo/p60-279.pdf
The US median post-tax income estimate for 2022 was $64,240 with a margin of error of ±602. For non-family households, the median was $39,630 with a margin of error of ±697.

Hayes, S., Collins, S., & Radley, D. (2019). How much U.S. households with employer insurance spend on premiums and out-of-pocket costs: A state-by-state look. Commonwealthfund.org. https://doi.org/10.26099/s50f-rs05

Health Markets. (2023, March 21). How much does health insurance cost per month? Www.healthmarkets.com. https://www.healthmarkets.com/resources/health-insurance/health-insurance-cost-per-month/

Heisz, A., & LaRochelle-Côté, S. (2003). Working hours in Canada and the United States. Business and Labour Market Analysis Division, Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11f0019m/11f0019m2003209-eng.pdf
This study explores the divergence in annual working hours between Canada and the U.S. from 1979 to 2000, noting that U.S. workers gradually began working more hours than their Canadian counterparts, particularly throughout the 1990s. It examines various factors contributing to this growing gap, including labor demand, wage inequality, and macroeconomic conditions like unemployment and economic growth rates. The study concludes that higher labor demand and the slower recovery of Canada’s labor market were key drivers of this trend, while wage inequality alone did not fully explain the disparity in work hours.

Himmelstein, D. U., Lawless, R. M., Thorne, D., Foohey, P., & Woolhandler, S. (2019). Medical Bankruptcy: Still Common Despite the Affordable Care Act. American Journal of Public Health, 109(3), 431–433. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2018.304901

Infrastructure Canada. (2021). National Active Transportation Strategy 2021-2026. Government of Canada. https://www.infrastructure.gc.ca/alt-format/pdf/nats-snta/nats-strat-snta-en.pdf

International Monetary Fund. (2024). GDP per capita, current prices. Imf.org. https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPDPC@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD

Isgut, A., Bialas, L., & Milway, J. (2006). Explaining Canada-U.S. differences in annual hours worked. Institute for Competitiveness and Prosperity. http://www.csls.ca/ipm/13/IPM-13-isgut%20et%20al-e.pdf
This paper analyzes the key reasons why Canadians work significantly fewer hours than Americans. The study, covering the years 1997-2004, attributes the gap—an average of 157 fewer hours worked annually by Canadians—to several factors, including higher vacation time, increased part-time work, and cultural differences that prioritize leisure over consumption. Institutional factors such as stronger union presence and stricter labor standards in Canada also play a role. Economic conditions, such as higher marginal tax rates in Canada and less unionization in the U.S., explain why Americans generally work more hours. The study concludes that institutional and cultural factors together account for the work hours gap, influencing GDP differences between the two nations.

Kaiser Family Foundation. (2023a). Average annual single premium per enrolled employee for employer-based health insurance. KFF. https://www.kff.org/other/state-indicator/single-coverage/?currentTimeframe=0&sortModel=%7B%22colId%22:%22Location%22

Kaiser Family Foundation. (2023b, October 18). Employer Health Benefits Survey. KFF. https://www.kff.org/health-costs/report/2023-employer-health-benefits-survey/

Kaiser Family Foundation. (2024, October). Marketplace average benchmark premiums. https://www.kff.org/affordable-care-act/state-indicator/marketplace-average-benchmark-premiums/?currentTimeframe=0&sortModel=%7B%22colId%22:%22Location%22

Lewyn, M. (2012). Sprawl in Canada and the United States. Urban Lawyer, 44(2012).

Li, N., Palacios, M., & Esmail, N. (2024). The Price of Public Health Care Insurance, 2024. Fraser Institute.

Li, V., Hamza, M., & Arif, A. (2023). Mind the gap: Compensation disparity between Canadian and American technology workers. The Dais. https://dais.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/CanadaUSWageGap_V9.pdf
This report from 2023 reveals that tech workers in the US earn approximately 46% more than their Canadian counterparts, a difference of nearly $40,000 CAD annually. This significant disparity is influenced by several factors, including a higher prevalence of part-time work in Canada and differences in wage premiums based on educational attainment, which are notably higher in the US. The report also highlights that American tech workers benefit from substantial non-wage compensation like stock options and bonuses, which are more generous than in Canada. Additionally, geographic factors play a role, with US tech hubs offering a significant wage premium not found in Canadian tech cities. The study also discusses gender and racial inequities in tech, noting that women and racial minorities, particularly in the US, face significant wage disparities compared to their male and White counterparts, respectively. Overall, the paper provides a comprehensive analysis of the complex factors contributing to the wage gap between Canadian and American tech workers.

Marshall, W. E., Piatkowski, D. P., & Garrick, N. W. (2014). Community design, street networks, and public health. Journal of Transport & Health, 1, 4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jth.2014.06.002

Massachusetts Department of Unemployment Assistance. (2023). Learn about unemployment insurance. Mass.gov; Commonwealth of Massachusetts. https://www.mass.gov/info-details/learn-about-unemployment-insurance

McMullen, L., de la Fuente, P., & Sheehy, K. (2024, November 2). How much income should you spend on rent? NerdWallet. https://www.nerdwallet.com/article/finance/how-much-should-i-spend-on-rent

Mohr, A. (2024, August 29). Do Canadians Really Pay More Taxes Than Americans? Investopedia. https://www.investopedia.com/financial-edge/0411/do-canadians-really-pay-more-taxes-than-americans.aspx

Montero, A., Hamel, L., Presiado, M., & Lopes, L. (2024, March 1). Americans’ Challenges with Health Care Costs. Kaiser Family Foundation. https://www.kff.org/health-costs/issue-brief/americans-challenges-with-health-care-costs/
This report highlights the significant financial burden that healthcare costs place on U.S. adults. Nearly half of U.S. adults find it difficult to afford healthcare, with younger adults, those with lower incomes, and the uninsured facing the most challenges. One in four adults report delaying or skipping needed care due to cost, with 61% of uninsured adults affected. High costs also prevent many from filling prescriptions, with about 21% opting for over-the-counter alternatives and 10% cutting doses or skipping medication. The burden of medical debt affects about 41% of adults, with a disproportionate impact on Black, Hispanic, low-income adults, and the uninsured. Additionally, approximately three-quarters of adults are worried about unexpected medical bills or out-of-pocket costs. This study emphasizes the broad impact of healthcare costs across different demographic groups in the U.S., regardless of insurance status.

National Priorities Project. (2023). 2023 average federal income taxes paid by state. National Priorities Project. https://www.nationalpriorities.org/interactive-data/taxday/average/2023/receipt/
The National Priorities Project (NPP) analyzes federal budget data from the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) to show how income tax dollars are spent. They adjust figures for inflation and occasionally report spending as a percentage of GDP. NPP organizes federal spending into clear categories (e.g., healthcare, education, military) to help the public understand where taxes go, including contributions toward Medicare and Medicaid.

Numbeo. (2024). Northern America: Cost of Living Index by City 2024 Mid-Year. Numbeo.com. https://www.numbeo.com/cost-of-living/region_rankings.jsp?title=2024-mid&region=021

OECD (2024d), Gross domestic product (GDP) (indicator). doi: 10.1787/dc2f7aec-en (Accessed on 15 April 2024)

OECD. (2024e). Net childcare costs indicator. OECD Data. https://www.oecd.org/en/data/indicators/net-childcare-costs.html

OECD. (n.d.). Monthly comparative price levels. Stats.oecd.org. https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=CPL

OECD. (2024, August 26). Average annual hours actually worked per worker. https://www.oecd.org/en/data/indicators/hours-worked.html?oecdcontrol-324c268e53-var1=CAN%7CUSA&oecdcontrol-d7f68dbeee-var3=2023

Oegema, H., Wang, R., Dobrik, S., Melinyshyn, S., & Lo, W. (2020). Software engineering 2020 class profile. https://uw-se-2020-class-profile.github.io/profile.pdf
This is a survey of the University of Waterloo Software Engineering Class of 2020. It reports that 84% of Waterloo’s CS grads plan to move to the US and of those leaving Canada, 93% chose better compensation as one factor that would have motivated them to stay in Canada.

Ping Zhou. (2019, February 4). Comparing the city in the United States and Canada. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/comparing-the-city-in-the-united-states-and-canada-1435805

Pucher, J., & Buehler, R. (2006). Why Canadians cycle more than Americans: A comparative analysis of bicycling trends and policies. Transport Policy, 13(3), 265–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2005.11.001

Redfin. (2024). United States housing prices & market. Www.redfin.com. https://www.redfin.com/us-housing-market
The median sale price of a home in the USA was $438,601 as of May 2024.

Replica. (2023). 2023 MSA Rankings. Replicahq.com. https://www.replicahq.com/2023-vmt-rankings#section-learn-more
This report explores the VMT per capita, daily travel minutes per capita, and walking mode share of the top 50 Metro Areas in the US.

Rivelli, E. (2024, October). Average cost of car insurance in November 2024. Bankrate. https://www.bankrate.com/insurance/car/average-cost-of-car-insurance/

Rogan, J. (2024, January 5). U.S. or Canada: Which country is best to call home? Investopedia. https://www.investopedia.com/financial-edge/1012/u.s.-or-canada-which-country-is-best-to-call-home.aspx

Rosanes, M. (2023, April 12). Health insurance in Canada : Everything you need to know. Www.insurancebusinessmag.com. https://www.insurancebusinessmag.com/ca/guides/health-insurance-in-canada--everything-you-need-to-know-442511.aspx#How%20much%20does%20health%20insurance%20in%20Canada%20cost?%C2%A0

SHADAC. (n.d.). Median medical out-of-pocket spending. State Health Compare, University of Minnesota. Retrieved October 25, 2024, from https://statehealthcompare.shadac.org

Shrider, E., & Creamer, J. (2023). Poverty in the United States: 2022 Current Population Reports. https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2023/demo/p60-280.pdf
This report provides estimates of poverty in the US using both the official poverty measure and the Supplemental Poverty Measure (SPM). The SPM extends the official poverty measure by accounting for several government programs that are designed to assist low-income families but are not included in the official poverty measure calculations. It also accounts for geographic variation in housing expenses. The official poverty rate in 2022 was 11.5% with 37.9 million people in poverty. The SPM rate in 2022 was 12.4%.

Silva, J. (2024, February 20). Public mass shootings around the world: Prevalence, context, and prevention. Rockefeller Institute of Government. https://rockinst.org/blog/public-mass-shootings-around-the-world-prevalence-context-and-prevention/

Solomon, S. (2024, June 19). Canada Housing Market | 2024 Home Prices. Nesto.ca. https://www.nesto.ca/real-estate/canadian-housing-market-outlook/#:~:text=Composite%20Home%20Prices
The average selling price of a home in Canada was $733,300 in May 2024.

Statistics Canada. (2009). Canadian Vehicle Survey: Annual. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/pub/53-223-x/53-223-x2009000-eng.pdf?st=LpcYoiYM

Statistics Canada. (2022a, February 9). Profile table, Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population - Toronto [Census metropolitan area], Ontario. Government of Canada. https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&SearchText=toronto&DGUIDlist=2021S0503535&GENDERlist=1&STATISTIClist=1&HEADERlist=0
The population of the Toronto Census Metropolitan Area as of 2021 is 6,202,225

Statistics Canada. (2022b, February 9). Profile table, Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population - Vancouver, City (CY) [Census subdivision], British Columbia. Government of Canada. https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&SearchText=Vancouver&DGUIDlist=2021A00055915022&GENDERlist=1&STATISTIClist=1&HEADERlist=0
Population, density, and other demographic characteristics of the City of Vancouver as of the 2021 census.

Statistics Canada. (2023a, July 27). Table 35-10-0071-01 Number and rate of homicide victims, by Census Metropolitan Areas. Government of Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3510007101&pickMembers%5B0%5D=2.2&cubeTimeFrame.startYear=2018&cubeTimeFrame.endYear=2022&referencePeriods=20180101%2C20220101

Statistics Canada. (2023b, July 27). Table 35-10-0177-01 Incident-based crime statistics, by detailed violations, Canada, provinces, territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Canadian Forces Military Police. Government of Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3510017701&pickMembers%5B0%5D=1.37&pickMembers%5B1%5D=2.5&cubeTimeFrame.startYear=2018&cubeTimeFrame.endYear=2022&referencePeriods=20180101%2C20220101

Statistics Canada. (2024a, February 5). Crime and justice statistics. Government of Canada. https://www.statcan.gc.ca/en/subjects-start/crime_and_justice
Canada’s homicide rate was 2.25 per 100,000 people in 2022.

Statistics Canada. (2024b, April 26). Table 11-10-0190-01 Market income, government transfers, total income, income tax and after-tax income by economic family type. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1110019001
Canada’s 2022 median after-tax income for economic families and persons not in an economic family was $70,500CAD. Median after-tax income for persons not in an economic family was $37,800.

Statistics Canada. (2024c, August 9). Statistics Canada. Table 14-10-0287-01 Labour force characteristics, monthly, seasonally adjusted and trend-cycle, last 5 months. https://doi.org/10.25318/1410028701-eng

Statistics Canada. (2024d, October 15). Table 18-10-0001-01 Monthly average retail prices for gasoline and fuel oil, by geography. Government of Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/cv.action?pid=1810000101

Steuteville, R. (2021, August 12). Ten social benefits of walkable places. Public Square; Congress for the New Urbanism. https://www.cnu.org/publicsquare/2021/08/12/we-shape-our-cities-and-then-they-shape-us

Sweeney, D. (2023, May 11). Vancouver shows how cities can develop better infrastructure planning and development. World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2023/05/vancouver-cities-develop-better-infrastructure-planning-development/

The Economist. (2023a, June 28). Are Canadian cities better than America’s? https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2023/06/28/are-canadian-cities-better-than-americas
This article discusses the Economist Intelligence Unit’s (EIU) liveability index, which evaluates global cities across stability, healthcare, culture, education, and infrastructure. North American cities, excluding those in Mexico, generally score high. Canadian cities, particularly Vancouver, Calgary, and Toronto, rank among the top ten globally due to their smaller populations and high-quality public services. In contrast, American cities have not entered the top ten, with Honolulu being the highest at 25th. The article highlights that larger U.S. cities face challenges such as higher crime rates and lower stability scores. It also notes improvements in U.S. healthcare, though American cities still lag behind their Canadian counterparts in critical health indicators. The index provides a framework for understanding the areas where American cities can improve to enhance their liveability.

The Economist. (2023b, November 29). These are the world’s most expensive cities. The Economist. https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2023/11/29/these-are-the-worlds-most-expensive-cities

The Economist. (2023c, December). These are the most expensive cities in North America. The Economist. https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2023/12/01/these-are-the-most-expensive-cities-in-north-america

The Economist Intelligence Unit. (2023). Optimism amid instability: The Global Liveability Index 2023. https://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/Jun-Global-Liveability-Index-2023.pdf

The Wandering Engineer. (2022, November 28). The Canadian brain drain and why it won’t stop anytime soon. Medium. https://thewanderingengineer.medium.com/the-canadian-brain-drain-and-why-it-wont-stop-anytime-soon-553c366e2dd0

U.S. Bureau Of Labor Statistics. (2024, August 2). Current Population Survey (CPS). https://www.bls.gov/cps/
Unemployment rate as of July 2024 was 4.3%

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2023, September 21). Employee benefits in the United States, March 2023. https://www.bls.gov/ebs/publications/employee-benefits-in-the-united-states-march-2023.htm

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2024a, February 9). Changing Compensation Costs in the Chicago Metropolitan Area — December 2023 : Midwest Information Office : U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Bureau of Labor Statistics. https://www.bls.gov/regions/midwest/news-release/2024/employmentcostindex_chicago_20240209.htm
Wage growth rates for 2023.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2024b, August 7). Changing compensation costs in the Boston Metropolitan Area — June 2024. Bureau of Labor Statistics. https://www.bls.gov/regions/northeast/news-release/employmentcostindex_boston.htm

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2024c). Current employment statistics highlights, February 2024. https://www.bls.gov/ces/publications/highlights/2024/current-employment-statistics-highlights-02-2024.pdf#:~:text=URL%3A%20https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bls.gov%2Fces%2Fpublications%2Fhighlights%2F2024%2Fcurrent

U.S. Census Bureau. (2024, March 11). Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas Population Totals: 2020-2023. Census.gov. https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/popest/2020s-total-metro-and-micro-statistical-areas.html#v2023
Updated populations of urban areas in the US as of 2023.

U.S. Department of Labor. (2023). New Childcare Data Shows Prices Are Untenable for Families. DOL Blog. https://blog.dol.gov/2023/01/24/new-childcare-data-shows-prices-are-untenable-for-families?_ga=2.225627347.816767755.1720030696-1081422380.1720030696

U.S. Department of Labor. (2024). Paid family and medical leave fact sheet. https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/WB/paid-leave/PaidLeavefactsheet.pdf
As of March 2023, only 27% of private sector workers in the United States had access to paid family leave through their employer and only 43% had access to short-term disability insurance through their employer.

U.S. Energy Information Administration. (2024). U.S. gasoline and diesel retail prices. https://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pri_gnd_dcus_nus_w.htm

Walczak, J. (2024, February 6). State and Local Sales Tax Rates, 2024. Tax Foundation. https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/state/2024-sales-taxes/
The five states with the highest average combined state and local sales tax rates are Louisiana (9.56 percent), Tennessee (9.55 percent), Arkansas (9.45 percent), Washington (9.38 percent), and Alabama (9.29 percent).

Wikipedia contributors. (2019a, February 16). List of United States cities by crime rate. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_cities_by_crime_rate

Wikipedia contributors. (2019b, March 24). Crime in Chicago. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_in_Chicago

Wikipedia contributors. (2023, December 14). Comparison of Canadian and American economies. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Comparison_of_Canadian_and_American_economies&oldid=1189853189

Wikipedia contributors. (2024a, March 13). List of North American metropolitan areas by population. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_North_American_metropolitan_areas_by_population&oldid=1213430343
This Wikipedia page compiles multiple data sets on population across various North American countries into one convenient table. While Wikipedia isn’t always looked favorably upon in academic contexts, this is a YouTube video lol.

Wikipedia contributors. (2024b, May 1). List of United States cities by population. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_cities_by_population
Using for population and density information

Wikipedia contributors. (2024c, May 3). List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=List_of_the_largest_municipalities_in_Canada_by_population&id=1221971349&wpFormIdentifier=titleform

World Bank. (2022a). GDP per capita, PPP (current international $) - United States, Canada. World Bank Open Data. World Development Indicators. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.CD?locations=US-CA

World Bank. (2022b). PPP conversion factor, GDP (LCU per international $). World Bank Open Data. World Development Indicators. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/PA.NUS.PPP

World Health Organization. (2024). Life expectancy at birth (years) [Indicator]. Data.who.int. https://data.who.int/indicators/i/A21CFC2/90E2E48